Iconography: Textual or Visual?

I'm reading a book on biblical literalism which reminded me of a question I thought up a few years ago. Which books, literally which versions of the Bible, were artists consulting when creating works of religious art?

This might as first seem like a trivial query since you would expect all Bibles to generally say the same thing, but historically that's not completely true. The Holy Book developed over several centuries and has been inadvertently and deliberate changed up until very modern times. (Thomas Jefferson in fact wrote his own version of the Bible in the early 19th century, radically removing all miracles from Jesus' history and privileging only his spiritual teachings.) Also, the text of the Bible can significantly affect art; Moses' horns in Michelangelo's famed

statue of the Old Testament father are a result of a translation error meant to describe rays of light emanating from Moses rather than actual horns coming out of his head. Nonetheless, the biblical text said horns and so began a recurrent art historical motif.

Dependence on biblical text (or lack thereof) can most easily be seen in early Christian art when iconographic stereotypes nor the Bible itself were completely established. Typical Christian stories hadn't yet emerged so the iconography is infinitely more difficult to read. In fact, scholars have already noted that early Christian art was more influenced by the visual culture of the Roman world rather than upon source material from any common book. In this case it's because the common book itself which could have provided more homogeneous iconographic programs was fragmented and not yet fully canonized.

But even in later eras, I wonder which sources artists referenced to guide their work. Each Bible, especially before the advent of the printing press, was a highly individual, unique object which had been copied (always with a handful of errors) by a monk or scribe. When do errors like these affect the art? And during the Reformation when the Protestants opted to toss out an entire section of the Old Testament (now referred to as the Apocrypha), how did that affect the imagery of religious Protestant art? Albrecht Durer was born and died as a Roman Catholic, though he has been suspected of sympathizing with Martin Luther. Close examination and research into his iconography as it relates to biblical texts, I think could shed some light on his personal preferences.

And then there's the last question which is equally significant and dismantling to this idea; how much have artists relied on Bibles versus simply looking at iconographic tradition for their motifs? Any six year-old today who's been to three days worth of Sunday school could probably draw a decent creation scene without checking the Bible first, so naturally the greatest artists in history could do the same. Textual significance of religious iconography actually opens up a larger question of what most significantly influences artistic development: literary source and critique or inspiration from visual data?


For more on biblical literalism (not related to art history), read A Year of Living Biblically by A.J. Jacobs.

History Falling to Ruins: Call for Conservation at Pompeii

When considering the ancient city of Pompeii, Italy, one of the first words people often associate with the culture and landscape is “preservation.” A basic understanding of the site tells us that nearly two thousand years ago, on 24 August 79 AD, the active volcano Mount Vesuvius erupted, covering the nearby cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum with mud, ash, lapilli, and poisonous gases. Though fatal to most of the inhabitants at the time, many of the artistic endeavors and cultural practices, as well as the layout of the city itself, were preserved due to the layers of volcanic discharge that engulfed the area in a short period of time. Despite these incredible historical happenstances, however, scholars today are forced to question whether this preservation can last the test of time now that much of the site has been uncovered. Past issues in financial support, lack of skilled conservationists, and no significant program for preservation have been detrimental to the conservation of this historically important site.

Need for greater conservation efforts at Pompeii has become more well known worldwide with the recent collapse of the House of the Gladiators (Schola Armaturarum Juventus Pompeiani) in November 2010 and the subsequent fall of a garden wall in the House of the Moralist a few weeks later. This travesty served as the break point for a long line of problems at the site, including improper and unpublished archaeological sites, inconsiderate tourists, insufficient cultural funding, and unsound past conservation attempts. Though these issues have persisted for some time, widespread knowledge of the need to take care of the Italian cultural heritage is vital. The government had previously focused primarily on marketing tourism of the site. While tourism is an important aspect of Italian commerce and the life of Pompeii, without proper conservation practices there will no longer be a site for the tourists to visit. It is already the case that many of the houses are closed to the public due to the unstable conditions of the structure. To solve this problem, it seems logical that the money acquired through tourism at the site should be filtered into conservation. This would allow for improved preservation of the site, which would bring in more tourism and then generate greater revenue.

Outside of the economics of the southern archaeological site itself, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi added to the financial troubles of the art and archaeology world when he cut nearly forty percent of the arts and culture budget (upwards of $398 million over the next three years) to the lowest it has ever been. With the collapse of the House of the Gladiators coming in the aftermath of this detrimental financial decision, along with questionable spending of state funds to support the careers of female actresses and dancers of personal relation to the Prime Minister, the Italian government and people have called Berlusconi’s negligence for preserving national heritage to attention. He has further revealed his misappropriation of taxpayers’ money with an approximately $95000 payment to have a statue restored for his office. Whether by replacing the fiscally irresponsible Prime Minister or by calling to question the ineptitude of the Culture Minister Sandro Bondi, it is clear that the Italian government, and accordingly Pompeii, desperately needs a representative who will place the conservation of the site and the preservation of historical and cultural heritage as a priority.

Major conservation efforts on the part of the government have not come into effect since additional funding was given to the site two years ago. Unfortunately, due to problems with the Superintendency or other workers on site at the time, the plan for conservation was poorly designed and executed. Moreover, the Superintendency is presently understaffed and lacks the skilled professionals – architects, engineers, technical specialists, and conservation specialists - needed to carry out conservation projects. Because of this, even if there were adequate funding for preserving the site, there would not be competent personnel to carry out the necessary tasks for conservation. Additionally, the staff that is available needs to be given the confidence and inspiration to carry out necessary action. Without willing attendants, improvements will never be made.


Notable archaeologist and former head of Superintendency Piero Guzzo brought new prospects of conservation to the southern archaeological sites when he approved external fiscal assistance from Dr. David Packard of Packard Humanities Institute for conserving the site of Herculaneum. Since 2001, the Herculaneum Conservation Project has addressed the infrastructure problems on the site by improving the roofing and water distribution after inclement weather. They have also conducted scientific studies to eliminate risks in preservation practices and have set up sustainable programs for future conservation. The program has been working alongside archaeologists to maintain excavation discoveries that have led to better understanding of the historical significance of the city. Progress at this site has laid the framework for the actions necessary for effective conservation at Pompeii.

Priority needs to be on improving the infrastructure of the ancient city as well as the structure supporting the fragile walls and floors still in existence. Providing a way to export water from the houses is important for preserving the mud-infused walls, paintings, frescoes, and tiled floors. The conservationists on the site have to focus their attention on smaller more manageable projects to ensure completion and sustainability. There needs to be a system of constant renovation and conservation to maintain the development of the site year round. Something as simple as unblocking a gutter or maintaining a systematic database for documenting past and future work will make a world of difference for an effective program.

Fortunately in recent years, the Herculaneum Conservation Project has shown the effectiveness of continuous preservation programs that take the needs of the site into consideration and utilize the knowledge of the people who work directly with the remains. Hopefully the future work on Pompeii will do the same and irrational decisions in light of the fallen walls will be limited. Utilizing the information and pride that comes from the custodi who serve as cultural security for the sites will be highly beneficial for any who strive to improve what is left of the incredible ancient city.

Pompeii annually receives around 2.5 million visitors. With this many spectators, one would hope those overseeing the site would be ashamed of its falling homes and deteriorating paintings. The site is one of Italy’s most extensive examples of ancient Roman culture and should be taken care of as such. With the major devastation that befell the city in the past year, however, more attention will hopefully be paid to reasonable conservation efforts. Though it will be a long process, the continuous maintenance of the site will serve to preserve a culture that has had a lasting influence on art and antiquity and has the potential to survive for another two thousand years if we care for it properly.